# Relevance of cycle detection in Pollard's rho integer factorization algorithm

I've recently learned about Pollard's rho factorization algorithm, and the way I understand it, it works by using a pseudorandom sequence of integers $$x_{k}$$ ranging from $$0$$ to $$n-1$$, where $$n$$ is the number to be factored, to find repetitions in an unknown sequence $$y_{k} = x_{k} \bmod p$$, where $$p$$ is an unknown, non-trivial factor of $$n$$. Such a repetition $$y_{i}=y_{j}$$ occurs when $$x_{i}\equiv x_{j} \bmod p$$, which can be detected by checking whether $$\gcd(x_{i}-x_{j}, n)\gt 1$$.

From what I could find on the Internet, Floyd's cycle detection algorithm or a variant thereof is used to find such repetitions. And the reason for this is what I don't understand.

• First, Floyd's algorithm requires that each element in the sequence depends solely on the element before it, which, even if it is the case for $$x_{k}$$, is not necessarily the case for $$y_{k}=x_{k}\bmod p$$. For example, assuming we want to factorize $$6$$, let's take the sequence $$5, 3, 2, 4, 1, 0, 5, 3, 2, 4, 1, 0,\ldots$$. The cycle period is $$5, 3, 2, 4, 1, 0$$, where every element is contained only once. However, if we take this sequence $$\bmod 2$$, we get $$1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0,\ldots$$. Floyd's algorithm cannot be applied here to find the cycle period $$1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0$$.
• Besides, we are not even interested in a cycle, only in repetitions. Whether we find the congruence $$\bmod 2$$ between $$5$$ and $$3$$, $$5$$ and $$1$$, or $$4$$ and $$2$$ in the first sequence is irrelevant.

Please correct me if my understanding of Pollard's rho algorithm as described above is wrong. But if it is not, it seems to me that one could just as well try out some random numbers between $$2$$ and $$n-1$$ and see if they share a divisor with $$n$$ other than $$1$$. So what is the benefit of using a cycle detection method like Floyd's algorithm?

I also found this related question, but it is not answered, and the comment on the question does not really answer the question either.

• There is a correct idea in this way of thinking about Pollard's rho, and the Wikipedia article (which I feel sure you've seen) links to this blog post that uses random sampling to introduce the ideas. As @metamorphy's Answer points out, much of the optimizations that reduce computation depend on the polynomial nature of the pseudo-random number generation in order to exploit the cycling behavior of unknown length. – hardmath Jun 4 '19 at 19:41

First, the algorithm uses "pseudorandom" sequences of the form $$x_{k+1}=f(x_k)$$ (not of any other form). This is done so to (try to) utilize the birthday paradox: if $$f$$ is chosen randomly, then the expected period length is $$O(\sqrt{n})$$, and one can expect a similar behaviour when the choice of $$f$$ is reasonably restricted.
Second, these restrictions on $$f$$ include $$f(x\bmod d)=f(x)\bmod d$$ for any $$d\mid n$$ (and are usually satisfied just by further restricting $$f$$ to be a polynomial, saying the least). This is done to have $$y_{k+1}=g(y_k)$$ for $$y_k=x_k\bmod p$$, where $$p$$ is (any, but let's consider) the smallest prime factor of $$n$$, so that if (as is expected again) $$g$$ behaves like randomly chosen, the expected period length of $$y_k$$ is (only!) $$O(\sqrt{p})$$. This is the core idea of the algorithm, which gives it an expected running time of $$O(n^{1/4+\epsilon})$$ and makes it "well-suited" for small $$p$$ (if we forget newer methods).
• "Second, these restrictions on $f$ include $f(x\bmod d)=f(x)\bmod d$ for any $d\mid n$" – ah, this was the missing link. Based on what I had found on the Internet, I was under the impression that any source of randomness could be used and that the use of a polynomial is just a convenient way to be able to detect cycles. I still have to think about this a little, but it seems a lot clearer now, thank you. I'll accept the answer as soon as I'm sure that I understand it :D – Stingy May 28 '19 at 23:53