# For which prime $p$ is $x^4 \equiv -1 \pmod{p}$ solvable?

Let $p$ be a prime. I know, due to Euler's criterion, that if $x^2 \equiv -1 \pmod{p}$ is solvable, then $p \equiv 1 \pmod{4}$ simply because I inspect which $p$ that are such that $(-1)^\frac{p-1}{2} = 1$

However, when I am trying to "generalize" to $x^4 \equiv -1 \pmod{p}$, I fail to recognize for which $p$ this equation has a solution?

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Beside the uninteresting $p=2$, these are all the primes of the form $8k+1$.
In general, if $\gcd(a,p)=1$, then the congruence $x^k\equiv a\pmod{p}$ has a solution if and only if $$a^{(p-1)/d}\equiv 1\pmod{p},$$ where $d=\gcd(k,p-1)$. The quickest argument uses a primitive root, that is, a generator of the multiplicative group modulo $p$.
A different way of phrasing the same argument might also be enlightening: the multiplicative group modulo $p$ is cyclic of order $p-1$. Therefore there is a solution to $x^4\equiv-1\pmod p$ if and only if there is a solution to $4n\equiv (p-1)/2\pmod{p-1}$. (The $-1$ turns into $(p-1)/2$ because both are the unique elements of order $2$ in their respective groups.) –  Greg Martin Feb 21 '13 at 20:59